Online Consumer Behaviors And Social Networking - 1822 Words

ABSTRACT With businesses seeking to seize the momentum of social media and social networking, technology-enabled social commerce has emerged to combine the power of online social networking with shopping. This study examines an emerging area in E-commerce, i.e., social commerce. Extending the online consumer behavior typology, this study categorizes online consumer behaviors into three types: transactional, informational, and social. While traditional E-commerce supports the transactional and informational aspects of online shopping, social commerce fulfils the social aspects of shopping, and potentially enhances the informational aspect as well. This research examines the online shopper as a prospective user of an emerging social commerce platform, the social shopping website, which are sites designed specifically to support social interactions while online consumers shop. The study augments the Technology Acceptance Model with constructs that enhance the specificity of the model to the soci al shopping application of social commerce. The model was empirically tested and supported. The results provide empirical evidence to support the importance of distinguishing the social aspect of shopping from the information and transactional aspects, as well as the potential advantage to using technology to promote social interactions on E-commerce sites. Implications and future research are discussed. Keywords: E-commerce, internet, shopping, social networking Ecommerce and theShow MoreRelatedThe Mixed Benefits Of Social Media1511 Words   |  7 PagesMixed Benefits of Social Media When people want to look for love, they look at eharmony.com. If they want to see what others are doing, they take a look at Facebook. Individuals who want to live in a better neighborhood look for Realtor.com. Society has different views of social media: people may feel out that social media is beneficial to their needs and it is a great tool used to socialize while others may argue that it creates a conflict in people’s lives. The benefits of social media outlets likeRead MoreA Good With Luxury Brand1498 Words   |  6 PagesApparently, luxury brand is treated as a social indicator in some extends since it becomes one of the most important symbols for social status and life style in worldwide nowadays. In the meanwhile, online shopping continues to a robust growth, with a result of online retail sales contributing to 4.9% of total sales in the first quarter of year 2012, under the phenomena of economic crisis(Bureau, 2012). However, if luxury brand performs a good show for online shopping adoption, especially in ChinaRead Moreâ€Å"Harnessing the Power of the Oh-So Social Web† Essay1440 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The groundswell, which is the term now being used for online social technologies, such as blogs, social networking sites like MySpace, and user-generated sites like YouTube and numerous other online communities now common on the Web, is making a dramatic impact on the way many organizations are conducting their marketing strategies. These online social networking sites have enabled the power to shift from the companies to the customer, this shift in power is being termed customercentricRead MoreFacebook Adding Music Services Essay1171 Words   |  5 Pages without leaving the site. The main characters in this article include Facebook, Inc., a social network website that provides registered users with an open forum to create profiles, send messages, upload photos and videos, and stay in touch with family, friends, and classmates. Facebook is teaming up with online music sharing services such as Spotify AB and Rdio Inc. Facebook’s competition includes online companies such as Google Inc. and Amazon.com Inc. that are already using â€Å"cloud† music servicesRead MoreSwot Analysis Of Find A Muse 1071 Words   |  5 PagesBe-Mused Marketing Strategy   Be-Mused, a play on words implying both to â€Å"find a muse† as well as be â€Å"mystified† is an omni channel social networking system dedicated to connecting users on the basis of hobbies and interests. Be-Mused uses geo social data to connect users, in real time, for events, gatherings, or one-on-one meetings, all orchestrated by independent users. Additionally, users have the ability to passively seek out activities. From starting an impromptu drum circle on Venice Beach,Read MoreA World Transformed By Social Technologies1004 Words   |  5 PagesTransformed by Social Technologies is a how to guide for businesses that explains what social media is, how it is changing the way companies relate to consumers, and how it can be used to their advantage. The authors, Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff, both analysts for renowned Forrester Research, one of the most influential research and advisory firms in the world, spent a year researching, analyzing, and blogging about social technologies that are changing the way companies and consumers interact. Forrester’sRead MoreUsing Instagram : Motives For Its Use And Relationship1272 Words   |  6 Pages41. Sheldon, P., Bryant, K. (2016). Instagram: Motives for its use and relationship to narcissism and contextual age. Computers in Human Behavior, 58, 89-97. Globally speaking, Instagram is currently the fastest growing social network site. However, the researchers observe little academic research studying who and why people use it. The researchers are interested in the motivations of using Instagram and its relationship towards contextual age and narcissism. The study uses a survey distributedRead MoreThe Effects Of Social Networking On Society1317 Words   |  6 PagesThe Effects of Social Networking Intro Over half of the world uses the internet. 2.2 billion people actively use any kind of social networking. There were 176 million new users of social media just last year (Regan 1). With the influence of so many people a pressing question: Is the impact of social media harmful or beneficial in its effects? Social networking is one of the biggest reports of online traffic. So, if so many people are using these networking sites, what are the effects on us? The â€Å"first†Read MoreUsing Online Sources For Search Information1717 Words   |  7 Pagesa world of technology, consumers are now shifting their focus from the traditional way of living to the advanced way of living. Consumers are now using technology to where ever they want. They are using online sources for searching information. The advancement of new technologies allows them to use more new-way to search information and through the technological communication, channels allow them to provide their information as well. With the help of technology, consumers have become able to thinkRead MorePrivacy Issues on Facebook1149 Words   |  5 Pagesof the internet and social media, many companies have sought to make their presence felt online. Companies can now interact with their clients from anywhere in the world in real time. However, questions continue to be raised over how safe the personal information users volunteer to companies with an online presence is. How sure ca n users be that their identity wont be stolen? One of the issues that have been subject to debate over time has got to do with user privacy on social network platforms like

Stem Cells And The Benefits - 2545 Words

Joshua Farias Lamar Green ENGL 1301 30 April 2015 Stem Cells and the Benefits Stem cells have the potential to make a large positive impact in the medical field. It is important to know the basics of stem cells, the potential of organ growth, the potential of testing new drugs and the added benefit of treating major illnesses such as Alzheimer’s and Diabetes. Like any part of new medical researches there are questions and controversies that come with it. Stem cells are very complex and should be studied more with more funding added to better understand this new advancement. The idea of stem cells were introduced by histologist Alexander Maksimov in 1908. He hypothesized the presence of stem cells. Stem cells were finally discovered by Canadian scientists James E. Till and Ernest A. Mculloch. Stem cells are defined as cells that have not been given the genetic code and maintain the ability to divide throughout life and take place of specialized cells that get damaged, lost or die. In some organs, such as the gut and bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn out or damaged tissues. In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special conditions (NIH.gov). The important stem cells are the embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. These two stem cells are important cells because each one plays a different role in research. Embryonic stem cells are cells that came from an egg that has been fertilized inShow MoreRelatedBenefits of Stem Cell Research773 Words   |  3 PagesBenefits of S tem Cell research The stem cell research has been controversial issue for several decades; People argue that stem cells are considered as one’s life. Stem cells for research are most often derived from the human embryo. However, Stem cell stage of embryo is not considered as human because it does not have any nerve system or any other organs. â€Å"Should Stem cell research continue?† to answer this question, Stem Cell Research should be continued because a new method of Collecting embryonicRead MoreStem Cell Research: The Benefits of Stem Cells Essay723 Words   |  3 Pagesextracted the adult stem cells from it and formed an osteoblast, which is a bone forming cell. Six months after the osteoblast was injected, it started forming new bone material which filled the gaps (NIH Stem Cells). Stem cells could be a genius way to treat many diseases and disorders and it should be supported by everyone. Stem cells get their name from the fact that they are basic cells that other cells develop from. They are capable of developing into a wide range of cells. Stem cells could potentiallyRead More The Benefits of Stem Cell Research Essay823 Words   |  4 PagesThe Benefits of Stem Cell Research Stem cells are considered â€Å"master cells† with the ability to divide for indefinite periods in cultures and can be manipulated and transformed into any type of cell in the body. The most common use would be the generation of cells and tissues that could be used to either create organs or tissues to be used in transplantation and to treat many diseases and disabilities. There is a great difference of opinion surrounding stem cell research; conservativesRead MoreThe Benefits Of Embryonic Stem Cell Research1184 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Embryonic stem cell research will prolong life, improve life and give hope for life to millions of people.† This quote by Jim Ramstad is about the benefits of Embryonic Stem Cell Research. Stem cells give us many opportunities to find the mechanisms that help regulate embryonic development, organ maintenance, and cellular differentiation. (Ramalho-Santos and Willenbring 35-38). Embryonic stem cell research has been around for many years. It has proven to be very beneficial to the medical world,Read More Therapeutic Benefits of Stem Cells Essay1193 Words   |  5 PagesTherapeutic Benefits of Stem Cells A stem cell is a cell which can differentiate into any other type of cell in the body. It can become a blood cell, a liver cell, or even a nerve cell. The only problem with stem cells is that they can only be found in the bone marrow of living humans or the gonadal tissue of developing fetuses. There are many people who believe that stem cells are the miracle cure for cancer, Parkinson’s, and many other terminal diseases, but there are large groups of peopleRead MoreBenefits and Controversy of Stem Cell Research547 Words   |  2 PagesThe benefits and problems associated with stem cell use and stem cell research. Problems Benefits There is a lot of controversy about laws and beliefs in respect to stem cells, specifically embryonic stem cells, regarding contraception, abortion, and in vitro fertilization. Many cultures and religions believe that the use of embryonic stem cells is unethical because they believe life starts from the moment of contraception therefore the destruction of a human blastocyst to obtain embryonic stemRead MoreEssay on Benefits of Stem Cell Research2506 Words   |  11 Pagesresearch of stem cells, especially now that techniques are being developed to create stem cells from an individual’s own bodily tissues. Every day we hear about these amazing unspecialized cells, and we continue to hear that other researchers all over the world are discovering new uses for it every day but, yet our government has refused to support such life altering research. Why hasn’t are government supported this breakthrough medical research? My belief is that our government should support stem cellRead MorePotential Medical Benefits of Embryonic Stem Cells999 Words   |  4 Pagesstudies on embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are the cells that aid the process of child growth while in the womb. These cells have a specific function to reproduce into any body part, such as a heart or major organ to hair or something not so major. Research shows that these cells have many potential medical benefits in the future. Embryonic stem cell research should continue to be pursued in society today. Embryonic stem cell research has led to medical benefits to aid in curing diseasesRead MoreThe Benefits of Government-Supported Embryonic Stem Cell Research2191 Words   |  9 Pagespeople disfigured or paralyzed. Stem cell research is a part of biomedical science that has the potential to cure diseases and defects, create organs for patients needing transplants, regenerate axons in spinal cord injuries, and create new treatments, drugs, and immunizations. However, federal funding is limited and does not cover embryonic stem cell research to an extent that would make a difference in medicine. The United States should support embryonic stem cell research by increasing federalRead MoreThe Stem Cell Debate is Not About Medical Benefits Essays2607 Words   |  11 Pages In the final analysis, the debate about embryonic stem cell research is not primarily about medical benefits. In his great novel The Brothers Karamazov, Dostoevsky raised the question whether it would be right to build a world without human suffering if it was essential and inevitable to torture to death one tiny creature such as an innocent child to achieve that end. Each of us must answer that ultimate question in the depths of his or her own conscience. The claim that destructive embryo

Economics for Principles - Problems Policies MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Economics for Principles, Problems, and Policies. Answer: Introduction: Penalty rate is the amount of money that any hospitality or retail workers receive for giving extra service especially on the weekends. The Fair Work Commission in Australia decided upon reducing the percentage of penalty rates paid to the workers. This decision is going to bring a change in the level of output produced in Australia on weekends. The diagram below helps in understanding the impact of slashed penalty rate on restaurants output at Sydney. Due to decrease in the penalty rate, the workers now no longer get any incentive to exchange their leisure for work on Sundays. Hence, the workers start reducing their service hours and thereby supply of restaurant output decreases (as shown by shift in supply curve from 1 to 2). Considering the demand for food remaining constant, there is going to be less output produced at Sydneys restaurant and thereby price of food supplied on weekends is going to increase. Negative externality has been termed as the situation where the marginal social cost transcends the marginal private costs in an economy. As a result people socially optimum level of output is not produced and lack of optimal production results in reduction of social welfare. It is said that negative externality is the cause and market failure is the effect. The diagram below helps to discuss the same. A quintessential example of negative externality is the excessive amount of pollution caused an effect of excessive cars running in any country. As everyone is the sufferer, no individual takes the initiative to change their lifestyle so that pollution is reduced. Hence those who reaps the benefit of using private cars and those who do not own a car faces equal problems. In the figure above the optimal quantity of cars that should be running is shown by Qopt but the cost is higher in this case and hence Q1 quantity is produced. As a result the volume of pollution continues to increase and the whole world is facing its consequence at present. Market economies are the situation where the demand and supply of any goods and services interacts amongst themselves in an unfettered way bringing in equilibrium within the economy. Under market economy the producers tries to maximize their profit by quoting the maximum possible price and the consumer tries to consume things at the lowest possible price. Hence, none of the economic agent is really bothered about the environment and market economies are seldom environment friendly. This is because in order to be environment friendly an outcome has its social cost greater than the private cost and hence remains unattainable under market economy. The world has been always trying to cope up with substituting the non-renewable energy with renewable energy. The government of Australia has planned to set up a renewable energy plant in the region of New South Wales. The expected result in this regard is increase in the supply of energy in the economy. The effect of establishment of this energy plant has been depicted below through the figure below: Pre entry of new energy firm: The total volume of energy supplied in the economy was Q0 at a high level of price P0. Moreover there was a scope of further increase in price of energy due to the depleting nature and scarcity of the non-renewable one. Post entry of new energy firm: The volume of energy supplied in the economy was Q1 at price P1. Q1 is more than Q0. That is more energy is expected to be produced at lesser cost. On other hand, the scarcity of resources in producing energy could be tackled thereby reducing the chance of sudden increase in the cost of energy supply. The demand of any rationale consumer decreases with the escalation in the price of the goods and services. As stated in the question, higher education has become costly in Australia and as a result the universities have increased their fees. Hence, going by the normal rationale theory it was expected that the demand for university education would decline. Since education is a special service through which human capital is generated leading to the scope of earning future income, hence the currently enrolled student would not change their demand. It is expected that though they are going to get agitated with the increased fees but would prefer to continue and complete their education. Those students who were planning to get enrolled should try to wrap up their degree in the least possible units. The rise in fees took place in all the universities of Australia. In addition, there are no substitutes available for education. Hence the rationale decision of any consumer is to continue their education. If possible the new students might check out the scopes available outside Australia and compare if it is beneficial to shift there. The main motive behind the government while imposing taxes is either to control the supply of any goods or to generate revenue. The Australian government has planned to impose a per unit tax on the mining products. The impact of this per unit taxation in the consumption and production of iron-ore has been discussed as follows: Prior to taxation, the equilibrium volume of iron ore produced were much greater in size and the price of iron ore was much less as dictated by the supply and the demand curve. After taxation, the price of the product got increased. The buyer now has to pay more price for the same quantity of goods than they had to before taxation. Again the seller receives lower price for each unit sold. The red triangle highlights the dead-weight loss within the economy and the blue rectangle shows the revenue collected by the government of the nation. Hence, the quantity produced and sold is less and it is sold at much higher price due to taxation. In order to reduce the time taken for sowing, ploughing and reaping the agricultural product, robotic technology can be used. This technology can increase the efficiency in the production of output. The impact of this technology in the consumption and production of agricultural crops has been shown by the following diagram. Technological up-gradation has always led to a change in the supply level within an economy. As the time taken by robotics is much lesser than a human worker, hence the supply of food production is going to increase as shown by the outward shift in the supply curve from 1 to 2. Assuming that there is no change of demand or any other factor, the quantity produced changes from Q0 to Q1 and the price gets slashed to P1. Generally the change in technology does not have any direct impact on the demand of the commodity. But with the increase in supply the price of goods in the market gets decreased and thereby people want more of the same. But in case of agricultural production, there is a limitation in the demand as people cannot consume more goods if its price is less. In such a case they might export it to other nations. Hence the demand curve may shift outward as shown by the dashed line marked as demand 2. Police service has been provided by the government of Australia without charging any money from the citizen. Henceforth, the actual demand for this service goes unnoticed and the government provides the service at a fixed price. Therefore, the supply curve is horizontal in this regard. With the implementation of privatization within the economy, there is going to be heavy impact in the short run with regards to the total volume of output produced and consumed. This has been shown through the following figure. As supply has been initially supervised by the government at some pre-defined cost hence the supply curve was vertical to the x-axis that is it was inelastic. On other hand after privatization the consumer wanted to pay as much less possible for this service and hence the demand curve is flatter. On other hand, the supplier or producer remains strict in their production process and hence the supply curve is strongly inelastic in nature. This is because though people were not charged before for this service but to maintain law and order they are ready to pay and receive the service. Price elasticity of demand is the measurement of the percentage change in the responsiveness of demand due to the percentage change in the price of the goods. Mathematically it has been denoted as: Since demand has a negative relation with price and supply has a positive relation with price and both demand supply moves in opposite direction, hence Ed is always negative. Therefore in deciding upon the elasticity of any goods and services the absolute value is considered. Whenever the value lies within zero (0) and one (1), it is said that it is an inelastic good or services. In contrary whenever the absolute value exceeds one, it is said that it is elastic goods. Again the elasticity also depends on two other factors that is the nature of goods and the extent of substitute available. The demand for luxury gods and those which have easy substitutes available are elastic in nature. On other hand, goods without substitutes and which are of basic needs are inelastic in nature. In calculating elasticity two things are taken into consideration that is the change in quantity of goods whose elasticity is being measured and the change in the price. Sometimes the changes in the price of other commodities are taken into consideration depending on the type of elasticity that is being measured. In addition to it the responsiveness in the quantity supplied is also measured by elasticity concept. Henceforth it can be state as the reason as to why the concept of elasticity has never been confined to the demand curve only. References: Engel, E., Fischer, R.D. and Galetovic, A., 2014.The economics of public-private partnerships: a basic guide. Cambridge University Press. Kates, S., 2014.Free market economics: An introduction for the general reader. Edward Elgar Publishing. Mankiw, N.G., 2014.Principles of macroeconomics. Cengage Learning. Pigou, A.C., 2013.The economics of welfare. Palgrave Macmillan. Rios, M.C., McConnell, C.R. and Brue, S.L., 2013.Economics: Principles, problems, and policies. McGraw-Hill. Sowell, T., 2014.Basic economics. Basic Books. Stiglitz, J.E. and Rosengard, J.K., 2015.Economics of the Public Sector: Fourth International Student Edition. WW Norton Company.

Operating In The Great Barrier Reef Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Operating In The Great Barrier Reef. Answer: The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is located in the north east region of Australia. It stretches over the Queensland Coastline from Cape Yorks northern tip to Bundaberg (Www.greatbarrierreef.org, 2017). After going through many levels of transformations the millions of dead corals have gone the turned into a wall of stone. Thousands of species inhabit around the wall. Almost 1400 species of corals, 1500 species of fish, 3000 species of mollusks, 14 species of sea snakes and 6 species of sea turtles live here (Www.gbrmpa.gov.au 2017). The rich diversity of sea life with variety of colors has made this places beauty so desirable. This 50000 year old barrier is the largest barrier reef in the world, consisting 900 islands covering over 348,000 square kilometers (Www.unesco.org, 2017). It is the only living thing visible from outer space and considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the World (Www.Sevennaturalwonders.org, 2017). The city of Cairns lives on the big barrier reefs tourism. Thousands of tourists every year just come to meet clownfish popularly known as Nemo. Once reached there, the tourists put on the shoe palms and the diving mask with the snorkel and jumps into the adventure of sea world. The diversity, density and beauty have made this place a must visit destination for the tourists. About 1500 vessels and 820 operators are operating there to manage the visitors activities in the marine park (Www.greatbarrierreef.org, 2017). The tourism business of the site represents the financial stake of the place. The tourism industry has been experiencing positive growth in the behavior of the tourists and authorities regarding the environmental responsibility. The Australian government also understands the ecological value and does not compromise with its environmental protection. For last 20 years it has been classified in the world heritage list (Www.unesco.org 2017). The constant attention by the tou rists, media and authorities has secured its financial growth. The economic sector of the tourism of The Great Barrier Reef covers the business and leisure tourism, commercial and recreational fishing and scientific activities. Tourism provides more than 90% of the direct economy of the region with 91% tourism accounting and 93% employment contributions (Www.environment.gov.au, 2013). In the year 2012 the Great Barrier Reef generated value added 5.6 billion and employment of 69000 dollars, totaling more than 7 billion (Www.environment.gov.au, 2013). However so many tourists constant presence in the natural site is affecting the reef negatively. The pollution, noise and disturbance cause harm for the animals as well. The authority charges 1.3 dollars a week as the cliff tax to the tourists who cross cliff (Michael 2017). This money mainly goes to the preservation of the reef. This world heritage site is visited by average of 1.6 million tourists every year. In the year of 2014, 2,244,217 international and 1,728,000 domestic tourists visited the l ocation increasing 6% from the last year (Www.ecotourism.org.au, 2014). The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and Deloitte Access Economics research analyze and produce the economic reports of the places tourism. The National and International Visitors Surveys provide the necessary information on the cruise or ship related tourism to define the economic expenditure of the area by using the Tourism Satellite Account Method. GBRMPA and DAE not only studies the commercial sectors but also considers the non commercial values of that reefs tourism as it contributes significantly to the indirect benefit benefits for the locals and the visitors (Www.gbrmpa.gov.au 2017). This indirect business like the food, fuel and beverage contributed estimated 2.3 billion in 2012. 63,985 people were employed as Full Time Equivalents or FTE including 19,500 indirectly and 44,850 directly (Www.environment.gov.au 2013).The commercial fishing contributed 160 million and 975 employments and revenue of 106 million was generated from various organizations for research andman agement purposes (Www.environment.gov.au 2013). Theenvironmental management charge covers all the commercial activities, tourist or non tourist operations and has been collected from each tourists of the marine park. Every visitor has to pay 6 dollars for the full day and 3 dollars for the part day. It generated 6.4 billion and 8.5 billion respectively in the financial years of 2012 and 2014 (Www.deloitteaccesseconomics.com.au 2012). Tourism groups like AMPTO, TRAC, TTNQ, and GAPD mainly manage the tourism business in the area (Www.ecotourism.org.au 2017). The Great Barrier Reef is facing many challenges recently. Over fishing affects 67% of the reef. The corals are suffering from a disease called coral bleaching; where the corals are losing the nutrients and becoming pale white (Www.phys.org 2017). The tourists have been showing more responsibility and awareness on human impact of The Great Barrier Reef ecology. The authorities are organizing tourist interpretation programs on the Reef environmental issues and the evaluation process of the programs and the visitors active participation helping the situation to improve. References Centre, U. (2017).Great Barrier Reef. [online] Whc.unesco.org. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/154 [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Ecotourism.org.au. (2017). Tourism and the Great Barrier Reef. [online] Available at: https://www.ecotourism.org.au/assets/Resources-Hub-Ecotourism-Research/Tourism-and-the-Great-Barrier-Reef.pdf [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Gbrmpa.gov.au. (2017).Animals - GBRMPA, The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Australian Government.. [online] Available at: https://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/about-the-reef/animals [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Great Barrier Reef. (2017). About The Reef | What Is The Great Barrier Reef?. [online] Available at: https://www.greatbarrierreef.org/about-the-reef/ [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Michael, P. (2017).How much the Great Barrier Reef is worth. [online] Couriermail.com.au. Available at: https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/how-much-the-great-barrier-reef-is-worth/news-story/d267434f9d8cd17ff956cd21bfc3e9a3 [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Phys.org. (2017).Saving Nemo: Bleaching threatens clownfish. [online] Available at: https://phys.org/news/2016-05-nemo-threatens-clownfish.html [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Sevennaturalwonders.org. (2017).Great Barrier Reef Seven Natural Wonders. [online] Available at: https://sevennaturalwonders.org/index_/seven-natural-wonders/great-barrier-reef/ [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017].

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Aims of Punishment Essay Example

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Aims of Punishment Essay The definition of crime is breaking the laws set by the State and the general agreement of people is that if someone commits a crime they should be punished in some way. Punishment practices are ancient; we accept them without question. However, punishment requires justification, as it is an infliction of pain upon an individual. What is the justification of punishment? What are its aims? Before the aims of punishment can be discussed why people commit crimes should be examined to further understand how we should punish. Some people believe that all human actions are caused by factors outside human control, these people are hard determinists. John Locke, a philosopher, believed moral choice was an illusion. He gave the example of a man sleeping in a locked room, man wakes and decides to stay in the room, he thinks he has a free choice to do so but he does not know it is locked. His ignorance makes him believe he has a choice. This relates to punishment and punishment must presuppose moral blame. No person can be held morally blameworthy if they have no freedom of choice. We will write a custom essay sample on The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Aims of Punishment specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Aims of Punishment specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Different Aims of Punishment specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This suggests punishment is irrelevant as no one can be held responsible for his or her actions. Clarence Darrow, a US attorney who was also a determinist argued just that point. In 1924 two youths kidnapped and murdered a 14 year old boy, Darrow pleaded for mercy on the grounds that it was the boys environment that was the cause of their crime. Darrow was successful in his argument; the boys were saved from death. Darrow was not suggesting that the criminals shouldnt be punished as one aim of punishment is to protect society, but he questioned the common assumption that criminals are morally responsible for what they do. Libertarians do not reject determinism completely but they do deny the principle of universal causation, which states that human actions can be predicted. They distinguish between personality and moral self. A person may be pre-disposed to steal because of their personality but their moral self may stop them from doing so. So Libertarians would see the aim of punishment to penalise criminals as they can be held morally accountable for their actions. John Stewart Mill states that we use the past as an excuse for ones actions as we fear the responsibility of freedom, but the past does influence our actions. One aim of punishment is as a deterrent and this is stated in the utilitarian theory. This looks at the consequences of punishment and decides if the punishment is right or wrong by the principle of utility, which is if it does or does not increase the sum total of human happiness. A famous Utilitarian Bentham said punishment involves pain so it is an evil, however it is justifiable if the increase in pain for the criminal leads to the prevention of crime therefore an increase in societys happiness. He saw punishment as an instrument for good with a deterrent effect. The infliction of pain is motive not to re-offend. it also includes the final incapacitation, imprisonment or death. Punishment also protects society by making it physically impossible to re-offend. Another approach to punishment is the Deontological theory. In this theory the aim of punishment is retribution. The theory states a punishment should fit a crime, that it is unjust to impose a sentence on a criminal which they didnt deserve, for example if a few drivers who parked illegally were hung others would be deterred but this would be unjust. This theory believes that there is a moral imbalance caused by crime which must be corrected by punishment and it concentrates on the criminal rather than the victim. The retributive theory is similar to the Old Testament views on punishment, e. g. an eye for an eye a tooth for a tooth. The idea being that the criminal must repay society that an injustice would be done if someone could inflict pain without having it inflicted upon him. Here retribution links in with the utilitarian theory as retribution also has a deterrent effect. If you know that chopping off a mans hand leads to you losing your hand, then you would think twice about doing it. The idea of retribution is appealing to the general public, for example hanging a Nazi war criminal forty years after his crime had been committed. No victims would be brought back to life, but it would be seen that he had paid for his crimes with his life. Cant, a German philosopher, believed executions were necessary unless society decided to forget all about injustice, unless murderers are executed people would behave like justice didnt matter. R. S. Downie was also an advocate of the retributive theory. He said that this theory is often seen as barbarism but provides a safeguard against the inhumane sacrifice of the individual for the social good. Brunner sees the theory of punishment also in Biblical terms. He sees punishment as achieving a moral balance similar thinking as the atonement of our sins. Brunner believed the penal system is flawed and the guilty should make expiation for their offences. De Wolf was also a Christian thinker and in his work Crime and Justice in America he attempted to show a Christian perspective on the Criminal Justice System. He listed a set of ethical norms of criminal justice by which our system should be evaluated. Consistence and coherence with realities. Benevolent good will and respect towards all person. Equal rights for all persons. Presumption of innocence. Special care to protect poor, weak and unpopular from unfair treatment. Restoration of community and responsibility of all individuals to the community. An opposing view on the aims of punishment is the idea of rehabilitation and reform. Here the focus is on the criminal, someone who couldnt cope with society due to a weakness. In helping them society will benefit, society should help them overcome their negative tendencies. Society should find a way to change them or reform them to bring them back to Society. Controlling or suppressing criminal tendencies, re-education or psychological treatment can do this. The idea is that the criminal is sick rather than wicked and needs help rather than punishment. It can be seen, as utilitarian in its outlook as it aims to have an improving effect on people, which in turn will benefit Society. In the Bible God punishes to reform the wicked happy indeed is the man who God corrects. In the 19th Century Christians used solitary confinement to achieve rehabilitation. Criminals had time to think about their evil deeds and repent. Prisoners were shut away from each other and cared for by chaplains. The Reformation and Rehabilitation theory disagreed with other ideas of the aims of punishment as they see prisons as a place where criminals enhance their criminal skills. How can you teach someone to be free when they are behind bars? The Reform and Rehabilitation theory believes in alternatives to traditional punishment, for example, probation, parole and community service, the latter even benefits society. An advocate of this theory was Crook. He saw punishment and crime as the responsibility of society. He suggested that everyone is responsible for the actions, but they are influenced by society. He believed it was possible to predict persons actions so therefore society should share in the responsibility for the offenders crime. He saw our legal system as wrong as individuals pay the price at the hands of our system. He believed society must pay the price of correcting these dangerous and destructive situations. John Hospers discussed a compromise view in which he combined retribution and reformation. He was a determinist and as such he saw men as not responsible for their actions, if a man commits murder because he ate a certain combination of foods, for example ham and cheese, we could not hold him morally responsible for his crime as it would be the ham and cheese which made him do it. He believed punishment should meet two conditions, that it should be deserved and that it should do well to someone the victim, the offender, society or all three. To meet the latter he suggested that the penal system shouldnt focus on punishment but treatment. He does not state he is a Christian thinker but his ideas are in line with Christian ideology. The philosopher Moberlys ideas were on a par with Hospers ideas. Moberly produced a theory, which combined elements of the retributive and reform aspects of punishment. He envisaged punishment as a form of ritual or mirror to bring criminals to their senses by representing crudely the moral deterioration, which had already taken place within them. Moberly believed the criminal had inflicted a wound upon society. He thought the penalty inflicted must symbolise and be felt to symbolise a double role of punishment, so imprisonment means the person imprisoned is unsuited to membership of society, however Moberly felt that the punishment in relation to the crime is artificial. He saw serious limitations to the effectiveness of punishment. He believed that there are authorities far too amoral to impose punishment and some criminals are too incorrigible and incapable from benefiting from it. At the other end of the scale he saw a intermediate moral region people who are truly repentant and communities too morally advanced to need punishment. Moberly sees that some criminals may not benefit from punishment but they still need to be taken out of circulation to protect the public. However, Moberly does not think that the people segregated from society should be left to rot in low quality prisons. In conclusion these theories seem to stand up on their own merit at first glance, but on closer inspection it is clear they have their flaws. The utilitarian aim of punishment is as a deterrent; however, it does not always deter people. Prisons are often just universities of crime simply making matters worse. Also the fear of punishment can lead to crime for example someone stealing money to prevent going to jail for not paying a fine. The theory of deterrence can be used to justify punishing the innocent on the grounds that it serves to deter others. The utilitarian idea assumes we have a legal system that will produce good results, but the threat of punishment is not very effective in reducing crime or preventing serious crimes such as murder or rape. The philosopher Hoose believed the deterrent effect does have some effect on crime but that it is far from automatic. He pointed out that when the death penalty was abandoned in Canada the homicide rate went down. The Dentological view that retribution is the aim of punishment also has criticisms as it could be seen as the harshest of all the aims of punishment. Gandhi said that if the retributive theory and eye for an eye a tooth for a tooth was used throughout the world the world would soon be blind and toothless. Christians should see that the retributive theory is wrong as Jesus taught forgiveness and co-operation not retribution only God has righteousness and judgement. Also many people argue that all retribution does is satisfy a primitive and barbarous desire for revenge. In Exodus it states an eye for an eye but how do we determine which punishment fits which crime? How long should the punishment be? This theory has too many unanswerable questions. Karl Menninger believed retribution was immoral and ineffective. He saw it as useless and expensive. He believed in rehabilitation and reform as he saw the criminal as a patient and that crime was a disease that people could be cured of. However, the theory of rehabilitation and reform is not without its critics. C. S. Lewis stated rehabilitation and reform does not really have an effect on people, that it is pointless. Some people are beyond help. Can a man who rapes and kills his family be helped? The theory in question also overlooks social advantages of deterrents. If there were not deterrents then how could psychologists and prison officers cope with the sheer numbers that would need help. As with the retributive theory the question of how long a punishment should be arises. A murderers chance of a repeat offence is low but a thief is much more likely to repeat his offence. Should the thief be given a longer sentence than the murderer? Also recent statistics by the prison reform trust show that probation and community service have not proved more effective than prison in stopping re offending. For example 57% of men and 40% of women discharged from prison in 1987 re offended in two years. The figures for probation and community service were 56% men, 37% women, 55% men, and 41% women re offended. The re-offending rate of prisoners is more than those in community service but not on a large enough scale to make a difference. This theory is supposed to be about reform but the way criminals are cured by mind altering drugs, surgery or brain washing is not reform. It is just creating a brand new person. The criminal loses the right to be him or herself in that case. C. S Lewis also stated his humanitarian theory, that in rehabilitation and reform the criminal becomes the case and not a person subject to rights. I believe that the most feasible of the aims of punishment is that put forward by Moberly and Hospers. Their views of compromise seem to be a very logical aim of punishment. Their ideas do not over punish criminals nor do they leave the victims feeling as if justice has not been served. Moberly also suggests that in some cases punishment may not be necessary. Retributivists however, may advocate punishment is a duty in all circumstances, but surely if in a particular case punishment would probably make matters worse and an alternative action, for example kindness, would improve matters, the morally right course of action would be the latter.

What are the effects on trade regulation for food security under the world trade organization system The WritePass Journal

What are the effects on trade regulation for food security under the world trade organization system Abstract What are the effects on trade regulation for food security under the world trade organization system AbstractI . IntroductionII. The Concept of Food Security1. Definition of Food Security2. Food Security as a Food Sovereignty3. Food Security as a National Security4. Food Security as a Human RightIII. Problems and Shortcomings in the Agreement on Agriculture1. Lack of Food Security Provision2. Inequity between FoodExport and FoodImport Countries3. Insufficient Recognition of S D Treatment for Developing Countries4. No Recognition of Uniqueness of Agricultural Products5. Insufficient Recognition of Importance of Domestic Production for Development and Food Security6. NonImplementation of the Marrakesh Decision(11) Food SafetyV. ConclusionRelated Abstract With the launch of new negotiations on international trade called Doha Development Agenda (DDA), agriculture is once again expected to be a central and difficult issue. As a solution to the problems associated with food security in the DDA negotiation on agriculture, this article suggested a creation of a food security box. The basic idea of the food security box is, (i) to allow, like other existing exemptions (such as Green and Blue Boxes), a series of exemptions to the AoA for members whose agriculture was not meeting basic food security needs (hereinafter the members); (ii) to allow the members to protect and enhance their domestic production capacity under certain conditions; (iii) to provide flexibility to the members so as to increase domestic support for agriculture until they have achieved a certain level of food self-reliance; (iv) to obligate developed countries to give to developing countries technical assistance for improvement in the productivity; (v) to balance the rights and duties between food-exporting countries and food-importing countries. Free trade alone cannot solve the global food security problems, since free trade may have both positive and negative effects on food security. It should be noted that the policy to achieve food security based only on food aid and trade liberalization is too risky in terms of long term public policy. Given the instability of agricultural production and food aid, it is in the special interests of many food-importing countries such as the Republic of Korea and Japan to increase domestic agricultural production to ensure food security. I . Introduction The Doha Ministerial Declaration, issued at the fourth World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference on 14 November 2001, launched new negotiations on a range of subjects, and included the negotiations already underway in agriculture and services. With the launch of new negotiations on international trade entitled Doha Development Agenda (DDA), agricultural trade is expected to be the most contentious and difficult issue.) It is agreed that the non-trade concerns (NTCs) such as food security and environmental protection will be taken into account. At the DDA agricultural negotiation, food security * Professor, College of Law, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea E-mail: [emailprotected] This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation (KRF-2001-013-000021). is a key element of NTCs. The NTC Group (comprising the European Communities, Japan, Norway, Switzerland, South Korea and Mauritius), often called as the Friends of Multifunctionality, raised NTCs as a central part of their negotiating positions. The United States and the Cairns Group rejected, however, the concept. Some countries argue that there is no food security issue for developed countries because they can afford to purchase if necessary. Food security is, however, fundamentally a matter of national security, justice and human rights where all countries have a great concern. The focus of the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) is, unfortunately, not on food security but on trade liberalization. The existing provisions of the AoA can not only not solve the global food security problems but also have detrimental impacts on food security and sustainable development, consumer health and safety and the environment. The AoA does not adequately and equitably address the food security needs of both developing countries and developed countries. As a solution to the problems associated with food security in the WTO negotiation on agriculture, this article suggests a creation of a food security box. This article will not attempt to explain or describe the details of the AoA. Section II describes the concept of food security under the context of the WTO system and international law. Section HI points out some problems and shortcomings in the current AoA. Section IV describes the concrete contents of a proposed food security box. Section V provides a brief summary and conclusion. II. The Concept of Food Security 1. Definition of Food Security The term food security has been defined in diverse ways. Both developing countries and developed countries have adopted some kind of food security policy. One starting point in understanding the concept of food security is a widely accepted definition adopted by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) at the World Food Summit in 1996: Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. 2) There are four elements implicit in this definition: availability, accessibility, reliability (or stability), and sustainability. Adequate food availability means that sufficient food supplies should be available to meet consumption needs. Access to food means that both physical and economic access to food should be guaranteed. 3) A reliable food supply means that an adequate food supply should be continued even during seasonal or cyclical variations of climate and socio-economic conditions. Access to adequate food is essential for good nutrition, but it is not in itself sufficient. Food should also be safe in order that people may survive and be free from disease. Food security, therefore, inevitably requires food safety. In addition, food security requires agricultural sustainability in terms of long-term food security. If agricultural production is managed through exploiting non-renewable natural resources or degrading the environment, it may threate n long-term agricultural sustainability and global food security. 4) Thus, food security requires available, accessible, reliable and sustainable food supply at all the times. Food security has three dimensions: individual, national and multinational levels. 5) At the individual or household level, poverty or gender inequality may influence the distribution of food affecting individual food security even when food supply is sufficient. At the national level, natural disasters or socio-economic conditions such as armed conflicts may seriously disrupt food production and supply. States may have sufficient food at the national level, but have some food insecure individuals because of unequal distribution of food. At the multilateral level, especially within the context of WTO, food security is considered as a State affair, and discussion tends to focus on liberalization of agricultural trade, trade regulation and adequate supplies of imported food to members. 2. Food Security as a Food Sovereignty Food sovereignty is the right of each nation and its people to maintain and develop its own capacity to produce the peoples basic food, while respecting productive and cultural diversity.6) Food may be used as a tool by nations to impose political and economic pressures on others. The effective realization of food security is essential to national sovereignty since the use of food as a political weapon among nations may limit and jeopardize the sovereignty of individual nations. Thus, in the Rome Declaration on World Food Security, government delegates agreed that [alttaining food security is a complex task for which the primary responsibility rests with individual governments. Because of the responsibility assigned to governments for achieving food security, they emphasized that Mood should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure. Food sovereignty is, therefore, a pre-condition for a genuine food security. The term food sovereignty was elaborated by NGO. In an Action Agenda adopted at NGO/CSO Forum on Food Sovereignty, food sovereignty was affirmed as a right of countries and peoples to define their own agricultural, pastoral, fisheries and food policies which are ecologically, socially, economically and culturally appropriate. 7) 3. Food Security as a National Security One of the major tasks of a State is to ensure enough food to feed its own people. Adequate food is indispensable for the survival of a sovereign State. When we are, therefore, talking about food security, we are really talking about a national security issue. Thus, some commentators justify the maintenance of a certain minimum level of production of agricultural products in the name of national `safety and security. Although the WTO members have not resorted to Article XXI (national security exception clause) of the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) to protect their domestic agricultural industry, the relevance of national security was pointed out at the Special Sessions of the WTO Committee on Agriculture. Under GATT Article XXI, national security issues may be exempted from Wf0 trade disciplines. Food security is also inextricably connected to national security and political sovereignty. Chronic food insecurity puts national security in jeopardy by placing at risk the health of a large number of people, and also it incites internal turmoil and instability. 4. Food Security as a Human Right Access to adequate food is recognized as a human right. Food security is fundamentally a matter of human right. Many commentators agree that under international law there is currently found, to a minimal extent, a treaty right conjoined with a customary right to be free from hunger.il)) International Agreements such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 12) support this view. In the Rome Declaration on World Food Security, government delegates reaffirmed the right of everyone to have access to safe and nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger... 13) Food security is a global issue. National disaster or armed conflict in one agriculture exporting country can seriously affect the food security of other countries. International cooperation is, therefore, indispensable in order to ensure universal food security. Thus they also reaffirmed the importance of international cooperation and solidarity as well as the necessity of refraining from unilateral measures not in accordance with the international law and the Charter of the United Nations and that endanger food security. 14) Each nation must cooperate regionally and internationally in order to organize collective solutions to global issues of food security. In a world of increasingly interlinked institutions, societies and econo mies, coordinated efforts and shared responsibilities are essential. 15) III. Problems and Shortcomings in the Agreement on Agriculture 1. Lack of Food Security Provision The focus of the AoA is not food security, but trade liberalization. Its main objective is to establish a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading system through substantial progressive reductions in agricultural support and protections(Preamble). The AoA aims to liberalize agricultural trade in three principal ways: increase of market access, reduction of both domestic support and export subsidy. The AoA has no provision on food security, and no definition on food security. There are, however, a few provisions mentioning the term food security in a very narrow sense. Commitments under the reform programs should be made in an equitable way among all members, having due regard to non-trade concerns, including food security(Preamble). Article 12 of the AoA provides that members instituting export prohibition or restriction shall give due regard to the effects of such prohibition or restriction on importing members food security. Annex 2 of the AoA articulates public stockholding (para3) for food security purposes. 16) Para.4 (domestic food aid) of the Annex 2 is also a provision for food security, although the term food security is not used. Thus, the term food security in the WTO is used in a very narrow sense and relates primarily to the adequate supply of food to member states through free trade. 2. Inequity between FoodExport and FoodImport Countries The AoA has a lack of due consideration for non-trade concerns such as food security. The AoA enables food-export countries to continue to subsidize and protect domestic producers while requiring food-import countries to open up their markets to foreign competition. Consequently, it failed to balance the interests of food-exporting and food-importing countries. It should be noted that there are special provisions for developing and least-developed countries, not for food-importing countries. Even the net food-importing countries (NFICs) are merely a subcategory of developing countries. 17) The AoA, like other WTO Agreements, specifies different types of legal rights and obligations concerning market access, export subsidies, and domestic support, according to different categories of countries. The principal classifications are developed and developing countries, with the latter receiving special and differential (SD) treatment. It should be also noted that commitments under the reform programs for agricultural trade should be made in an equitable way among all members, having due regard to non-trade concerns, including food security (Preamble). 3. Insufficient Recognition of S D Treatment for Developing Countries As pointed out above, the AoA confers more beneficial legal rights and obligations concerning market access, export subsidies, and domestic support on developing countries. Developing countries were given different timetables, different target reduction rates, and different exemptions. The implementation period for making reductions was six years (until 2000) for developed countries and ten years (until 2004) for developing countries. Developing 17) The net food-importing countries (NFICs) are a subcategory of developing countries, which is defined by the WTO Committee on Agriculture based on trade profile data and negotiation among members. As of February 2000, there are 19 NFICs. countries were allowed to apply lower rates of reduction in the areas of market access, export subsidies, and domestic support (but not less than 2/3 of those to be applied by developing countries). Least-developed countries were exempted from reduction commitments, although they were required to bind their tariffs and domestic support and not exceed those amounts. Most of the current SD provisions for developing countries are, however, largely irrelevant and ineffective because they lack the funds and means to use export subsidies, and domestic supports. The AoA enabled developed countries to continue to subsidize and protect domestic producers while requiring developing countries to open up their markets to foreign competitors. The AoA provisions systematically favor agricultural producers in developed countries and multinational agribusiness, and are unfair to developing countries. No WTO Agreement is more iniquitous than the AoA. Thus, the AoA enabled developed countries to maintain trade-distorting subsidies and import restrictions, and failed to achieve its stated objective of establishing a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading system. 18) It should be noted that the Doha Declaration articulated that SD treatment for developing countries shall be an integral part of all elements of the negotiations.(para.13) 4. No Recognition of Uniqueness of Agricultural Products Agricultural products are unique and most essential commodities in every country. In addition to its primary function of producing food, agriculture also provides non-food services to our societies jointly produced from agricultural activities. Non-food services of agriculture that have characteristics of public goods include the viability of rural areas, food security, environmental protection, rural employment, and preservation of cultural heritage and agricultural landscape. In this context, the multifunctional role of agriculture, in both developed and developing countries, should be recognized. 19) In addition, agricultural production is biological and site-specific. Demand and production in agriculture is inelastic. Supply is heavily dependent upon the weather, and very sensitive to climate change. Over 90% of global rice production depends on the same monsoon area. 201 All these unique and multifunctional characteristics of agriculture need to be recognized and should be reflected in the revised AoA. [T]o ensure that international trade plays a positive role in ensuring food security, it is essential that trade rules respect the characteristics that distinguish agriculture from other sectors. 21 ) 5. Insufficient Recognition of Importance of Domestic Production for Development and Food Security The AoA is premised on the idea that trade liberalization can enhance national and global food security. There is, however, widespread public concern that the current direction of trade liberalization under the AoA has a detrimental impact on food security and development. To date, the AoAs objectives of removing trade barriers and protection have failed to promote the goals of sustainable agriculture and food security. The AoA overestimates the importance of free trade, but underestimates that of domestic production, in terms of sustainable development and food security. In order to reduce the risks that are often associated with an excessive reliance on imports, a certain degree of domestic agricultural food production is essential for food security and development.22) Domestic production may play a role of insurance against risks such as import interruptions and poor harvests in exporting countries. 23) Agriculture is a way of life in many developing agrarian countries, and support of agricultural production is essential for ensuring food security, rural employment, and poverty alleviation. Agriculture continues to be an important source of foreign exchange and revenue for developing countries. In this context, domestic production should be recognized as an essential means to secure food security and development in the revised AoA. 6. NonImplementation of the Marrakesh Decision For countries that may be adversely affected by trade liberalization, a separate decision was adopted, called the Marrakesh Ministerial Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of the Reform Programme on Least-Developed and Net Food-Importing Developing Countries (Marrakech Decision). 25) The Marrakech Decision was supposed to protect LDCs and NFIDCs from food insecurity caused by trade liberalization through ensuring a continued flow of financial resources, food aid, and technical assistance. To date, the Marrakech Decision has not been sufficiently implemented. The Marrakech Decision is ineffective because it does not adequately define the problem (what are the negative effects?), it does not assign responsibilities, and it has no implementation mechanism. The requirement for providing a proof of damage and causality makes it also very difficult to invoke the Decision. N. Proposals for Food Security Box Food security is a key element of non-trade concerns and agricultural problems. As pointed out earlier, however, the existing provisions of the AoA can not only not solve the global food security problems but also have a detrimental impact on food security and sustainable development, consumer health and the environment. The AoA does not adequately and equitably address the food security needs of developing countries and developed countries. The AoA needs, therefore, fundamental reform from the perspective of food security, and food security should have top priority in the DDA agricultural negotiations and a revised AoA. Food security should be mentioned in the preamble of the AoA as a central objective,and specifically reflected in its Articles. As a solution to the problems associated with food security in the DDA negotiations on agriculture, this section will suggest a creation of a `food security box; the provisions of which will be elaborated in detail, based on the four elements of food security mentioned above. It should also be noted that the food security box is different from the concept of a `development box in that the latter is concemed with SD treatment for developing countrie s,26) while the former reflects the food security concerns of both developing countries and (net food-importing) developed countries. 27) The basic idea of the food security box is, (i) to allow, like other existing exemptions (such as Green and Blue Boxes), a series of exemptions to the AoA for members whose agriculture was not meeting basic food security needs (hereinafter the members); (ii) to allow the members to protect and enhance their domestic production capacity under certain conditions; (iii) to provide flexibility to the members so as to increase domestic support for agriculture until they have achieved a certain level of food self-reliance; (iv) to obligate developed countries to give to the members technical assistance for improvement in productivity; (v) to balance the rights and duties between food-exporting countries and food-importing countries. (1) Tariffs Basic food security crops should be exempt from tariff reduction commitments. Each member may nominate, based on a negative list approach, a list of staple food security crops for exemption from reduction commitments. The basic food security crops or staple food security crops are crops which are either staple foods in the country concerned, or the main sources of livelihood for low-income farmers 2 8) To be qualified as basic food security crops, they should be sensitive in terms of food security and sustainable development. 26)  Ã‚   Some members proposed a Development Box at the Committee on Agriculture. See The Development Box, Non-papa by Dominican Republic, Kenya, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, Special Session of the Conunittee on Agriculture Informal Meeting, 4-6 February 2002. (2)  Ã‚   TRQs Tariff rate quotas (TRQs) were introduced in the Uruguay Round to ensure that existing access conditions were not undermined and as a means to create new market access opportunities. The expansion of TRQs may help to ensure greater market opportunities, for exporters especially in developing countries, and to further liberalize and increase trade in agricultural products. Since TRQs have contributed positively to increased market access and the food security of net-food importing countries, much flexibility in connection with the TRQs administration should be given to the basic food security crops of net-food importing countries. Some members proposed at the Committee on Agriculture auctioning as an efficient and transparent method of TRQ allocation. 29 (3)  Ã‚   SSG The Special Safeguard (SSG) provisions were introduced to facilitate the reform process and as a means of protecting domestic farmers injured by increase in imports. Given the special nature of agricultural products, the SSG mechanism should be continued, in order to minimize serious injuries caused to the domestic industry by sudden import surges and price fluctuations in food security crops. Consideration should also be given for extending the SSG to cover crops which have the potential to substitute for local food security crops. (4)  Ã‚   Domestic Support At the WTO Committee on Agriculture, many delegates emphasized the importance of domestic production in achieving food security. 30) Most delegates contended that the most efficient solution should lie in a combination of domestic production, imports (trade liberalization), food aid and stockpiling, but they varied a lot in the emphasis they gave to various means. Food aid and free trade can play important roles in achieving food security. The heavy dependency on imported foods and foreign food aid is, however, too risky especially to net food-importing countries in terms of food security policy, since they can provide major food-exporting countries with a powerful political weapon. They can foreclose the potential of domestic production as an engine of rural development and economic growth. It should be noted that the policy to achieve food security based only on food aid and trade liberalization is, therefore, too naive and risky in terms of a long term public policy. The maintenance of a certain degree of domestic food production is, therefore, an essential element in national food security policies, in each country whether it is a developing or a developed country, and no matter how high its optimum self-sufficiency ratio may be. All domestic support taken to increase domestic production of basic food security crops for `domestic consumption should, therefore, be exempted from any form of domestic support reduction commitments. 32) It should be emphasized that greater diversity in food production systems may contribute to achieve food security by enabling the access to food within a region 33) Developing countries should have the flexibility to take any domestic support measures including price support for food security, rural development and poverty alleviation, regardless of its impacts on trade.34) (5) Export Subsidies Export subsidies provided by developed countries may impact negatively on the food production system of importing countries and have detrimental effects on their domestic markets.35) Thus, they may impact negatively on the food security situation of net food-importing countries and developing countries. It may be contended that net food-importing countries and developing countries may also benefit from lower world agricultural prices caused by export subsidies provided by other countries. These benefits are, however, highly unreliable, and export subsidies are the most trade distorting of policy tools used in the agricultural sector. Therefore, at the Doha Ministerial Declaration, it was agreed to reduce, with a view to phasing out, all forms of export subsidies. 36) Developing countries should have the flexibility to use export subsidies in order to promote exports, especially when these exports are critical for achieving their food security needs. (6) Dumping Export subsidies may contribute to the problem of dumping which has also detrimental effects on the food production system of importing countries. The US and EC farmgate prices for many crops are less than many countries cost of production, because of huge amount of export subsidies. Producers from other countries cannot compete with dumped products from the US or EC based grain multinationals such as Cargill. The existing AoA does not address the problem of dumping of agricultural products. Thus, [Ole lack of rules in agricultural trade that preceded the AoA contributed directly to food insecurity in the world.37) Therefore, dumping of agricultural products should be prohibited, and food-importing countries should be allowed to take appropriate border measures against the dumped products, if they impact negatively on the food security policy of importing countries. (7) Export Credits Subsidized export credits, along with export guarantees and insurance, could be used to circumvent export subsidy commitments. 381 For this reason, strict rules and disciplines on export credits should be established in the revised AoA. Export credits may be, however, useful for food security in food importing countries suffering from financial crises or food supply problems,39) and should be allowed to be invoked through specific criteria, so long as they are not used as a means of circumventing export subsidy commitments. As of August 2002, export credits covering exports of agricultural and food products are not governed by any specific discipline within the AoA. 401 Rules and disciplines on export credits should ensure that export credits conform to commercial practices and do not confer an export subsidy.41) Developing countries should be, however, allowed to have the flexibility to use export credits. (8) Export Restrictions and Taxes Export restrictions and export taxes may be necessary for the food security of food-exporting countries in cases of emergencies like food shortages. For this reason, article XI of GATT 1994 prohibits quantitative export restrictions but makes an explicit exception for export prohibitions or restrictions temporarily applied to prevent or relieve critical shortages of foodstuffs or other products essential to the exporting contracting countries. Export restrictions and export taxes may, however, have detrimental effects on the food security of food-importing countries by promoting price variability and uncertainty. At the WTO Committee on Agriculture, a number of food-importing countries, like South Korea and Japan, contended that their food supplies could be disrupted and their food security jeopardized if exporting countries restrict exports of agricultural products. 42) Article 12.1 of AoA further obligates the member instituting the export restrictions to give due consideration to the effects of such restrictions on importing countries food security. However, given their significant distortion effects on world agricultural markets, strict rules and disciplines on export restrictions and export taxes should be established in the revised AoA. Above all, the period of export restrictions should not exceed more than three months, and a certain amount should be exempt from exporting restrictions during its implementation, for the food security of importing countries. Differential export taxes which encourage exports of processed products and discourage primary product exports should be prohibited.43) Developing countries should be, however, allowed to have the flexibility to use export restrictions and export taxes. (9) State Trading Enterprises Many countries have used state trading enterprises to control domestic markets and to regulate trade. State trading enterprises with exclusive or special rights and privileges may have negative effects on the establishment of a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading system. From the viewpoint of food security of importing countries, import state trading enterprises may, however, play an important role to ensure stable food supply. On the contrary, export state trading enterprises with monopolistic power may have a significant and direct impact on the international market. More stricter rules and disciplines on export state trading enterprises should be, therefore, established in the revised AoA. New disciplines on state trading enterprises should ensure export and import transactions are non-discriminatory and transparent. Developing countries should be, however, allowed to have the flexibility to use state trading enterprises. 44) (10) Food Aid and Stockholding Article 10.4 of the AoA does not prohibit the use of food aid as a means of surplus disposal or market expansion. 45) Food aid may, however, have negative effects on food security, and be used to circumvent export subsidy commitments. 46) At the WTO Committee on Agriculture, MERCOSUR group contended that there was an urgent need to establish more detailed rules on food aid in order to ensure that WTO commitments on reducing export subsidies are not circumvented while at the same time preserving the humanitarian dimension of food aid. Strict rules and disciplines on export restrictions and export taxes should be, therefore, established in the revised AoA. 47) Above all, food aid should only be in the form of grants rather than credits, should respond genuinely to demand, and should be targeted at the needs of the recipient countries. It should not harm the domestic production systems of the recipient countries, should not distort international trade, should not amount to the disposal of price-depressing surpluses, should not allow countries to circumvent their export subsidy commitments, and should not be used as a means of expanding market share by subsidizing countries. Developing countries should be provided with the technical and financial assistance to improve their domestic food production capacity.48) Public stockholding of basic food security crops for food security purposes should be given a wider definition under the Green Box provision. According to para.3 of Annex 2 to the AoA, the volume and accumulation of stocks shall correspond to predetermined targets related solely to food security, and there are strict criteria for how such stocks are purchased and sold. The AoA should also provide for regional food security plans, including joint maintenance of emergency food stocks. 49) Some countries at the WTO Committee on Agriculture proposed creating an international food stockholding system in order to effectively address food security concerns of developing countries. 50) Developing countries should be allowed to have the flexibility to use food security stocks. (11) Food Safety Recently, food safety has been an emerging NTC issue. Public concerns on food safety increases as the trade of agricultural products increases. Food safety requirements may be used as a means of disguised protectionism. Food safety cant be, however, given up in the name of trade liberalization, because food supplied to people should be safe, at least from the perspective of food security. Without consumers confidence in food safety, trade liberalization of agricultural products cant be accomplished successfully. Strict rules and disciplines on food safety should be, therefore, established in the revised AoA. Since food safety issue may also be discussed in the SPS and TBT Committees, this article proposes a written Understanding to be adopted, which may be annexed to the AoA or SPS Agreement.51 ) The Understanding should, among other things, deal with the precautionary principle, burden of proof on food safety, mandatory labeling for GM (Genetically Modified) crops or foods, cooperation with other organizations such as OECD and Codex. Since most food-importing countries lack technical capacity to show scientific evidence against imported foods, technical and financial assistance should be provided to members, especially to developing countries. 52) (12)Peace Clause Article 13 (due restraint) of the AoA is due to expire at the end of 2003. This Peace Clause protects members using domestic support measures from being challenged under the GAIT 1994 and the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, so long as they comply with their commitments on export subsidies and domestic support under the AoA. The Peace Clause should be preserved and extended for all measures that are taken to achieve the food security policy of developing countries. (13)Environment and Sustainable Agriculture Agricultural activities have both positive and negative effects on the environment. Agriculture contributes to environmental goods such as biological diversity and landscape conservation, which may enhance agricultural sustainability. It should be noted that agriculture in many developing countries is based on small-sized farms, and this type of farming is ecologically sustainable. [There is an emerging realization that agricultural systems in both developed and developing countries face challenges to achieve long-term sustainability and food security, 53)especially in light of growing populations and resource degradation. Without local agriculture there would be no positive effects, and without some level of support and protection there would be no agriculture. A certain degree of domestic production should be, therefore, maintained for sustainable agriculture and long-term food security. Green Box measures alone are not sufficient, 54) and the criteria for Green Box need to be broadened and flexible enough to enhance sustainable agriculture and long term food security. 55) Domestic supports for sustainable agriculture should be also allowed under the Blue Box. V. Conclusion At the DDA agricultural negotiation, food security is a key element of the NTCs and the most contentious issue. Trade liberalization may enhance national and global food security by expanding sources of food supply, encouraging more efficient allocation of resources, lowering food prices in importing countries, and increasing economic growth rate. However, the proposition that free trade can solve the food security problems is wrong for the following reasons. Agricultural products are different from industrial products in some respects and agriculture has the characteristics of a public good. Thus, when we are talking about agriculture, we are really talking about food security, rural development, environment, employment, culture, as well as production of food for sale in a market. Agricultural production heavily depends on climate and land conditions, unlike industrial products. Given the uncertainty of food supply in the world food market, there will always remain a residual threat to food security. The policy to achieve food security based only on free trade is too risky in terms of long term public policy. The maintenance of a certain level of domestic agricultural food production is, therefore, essential for food security of both developed and developing countries. The current AoA does not, however, adequately and equitably address the food security needs of developing and developed countries. With a view to redressing the imbalance and inequity of rights and obligations under the AoA between food exporting and importing countries, this article proposed a food security box. Among other things, basic food security crops should be exempt from tariff reduction commitments. Much flexibility in connection with TRQs administration should be given to basic food security crops. All domestic support measures taken to increase domestic production of basic food security crops should be also exempted from any form of domestic support reduction commitments. The agricultural negotiations are scheduled to end by 1 January 2005, along with almost all the other negotiations under the DDA. It should be noted that the DDA negotiations are a single undertaking. No element of them will be agreed until all areas are agreed on. As of 23 November 2003, the 31 March deadline for establishing modalities in the agricultural negotiations was not met. WPO members failed to set guidelines on tariff and subsidy cuts to use in subsequent negotiations. The first and revised draft of modalities for the future commitments prepared by the chairperson of the Committee on Agriculture failed to reflect the food security concerns of net-food importing and developing countries. This agricultural impasse may, therefore, spill over into other areas of negotiations, including services, and threaten the entire DDA round of multilateral trade negotiations. Without a system or compromise to solve the food security problems of both net-food importing countries and developing countries, the DDA round cant reach a successful and satisfactory settlement.

Assignment The Impact of Contaminated Land on the Valuation of Essay

Assignment The Impact of Contaminated Land on the Valuation of Property - Essay Example The solid as well as the liquid waste were disposed off in the land through which the soil was being damaged. Even though the waste are well regulated in order to prevent such contamination but still there are certain unintentional spills and leaks which might damage the land at the sites. Contaminants may range from oil, petrol, heavy metals and solvents to radioactive substances. The various sources of contaminant are not just industries, there are certain other sources like agriculture activities, dry cleaning, petrol distribution, deposition from the atmosphere, inadequate waste disposal, etc. These contaminants cause severe harm to human health and adversely affect the normal living condition of a human being. There are various contaminant elements that occur as a range of compounds among which some are highly soluble, accessible for biological uptake and toxic, whereas others are not much hazardous. For instance, arsenic is a common chemical addition to soils for older industri al sites and exists in various inorganic and organic forms. Toxicity depends on actual compound oxidation state, yet chemical analyses of suspect soils seldom reveals any such details and it usually indicates the metal concentration present (SEPA, n.d.). Interaction takes place between the various contaminants in the soil environment. These increases the potential toxicities of different contaminants involved where as in many cases competition between individual contaminant reduces the overall toxic potentials (SEPA, n.d.). The effects of contamination don’t last long once the contaminant reaches the soil. It breaks down or becomes neutralized, might be washed away by the rain, or remain in the soil building up to a high concentrations. When contaminants are made up, they may not be enduring. However soil can sometimes remain polluted for an indefinite period (SEPA, n.d.). It doesn’t mean that there is a problem if the ground is contaminated. It